Managing Diversity in the Workplace Essay

Managing Diversity in the Workplace Essay Managing Diversity in the Workplace Essay Example Managing Diversity in the Workplace Essay Example People differ in many ways according to social classes/status, marital status, gender, age, sexual orientation, and disabilities. These differences can be visible or invisible. Human resource management acknowledges these differences and knows that workforce diversity is a reality in every organization. Different countries have different predominant workforce diversity issues. In the recent past, however, the predominant diversity issue worldwide was gender inequality. Women were viewed and treated as inferior to men. Over time, this issue has been corrected, although there are communities where women are still powerless and undermined. In the current world, other diversity issues have come up, such as religion and race/ethnicity. For example, in China, rural migrants are looked down upon and ill-treated in the workplace by their urban counterparts. The human resource department of every organization must ensure that the positive aspects of diversity in the workplace are appreciated and that nobody is treated as a second-class employee only because they are different from other workers. This paper gives an analysis of various issues surrounding diversity in human resources and proposes management guidelines to promote well-being of everyone in the organization. Increasing Diversity in the Workplace In the modern workplace, major issues concerning civil rights are racial equality and gender equity. However, these are not the only issues that personnel management considers when they come up with diversity initiatives in their organizations. Other factors that need addressing diversity in the workplace include age, disabilities, and workers caring for sick relatives. This has necessitated enactment of various laws to help to cater for these employees’ needs, for example, the Age Discrimination Act, the Americans with Disabilities Act, and the Family Medical Leave Act. Other factors that increase diversity in the workplace include cultural, religious, and linguistic differences among employees (Marquis, 2007). Despite increasing diversity in the workplace, the human resource management has the responsibility for fostering a healthy working environment in their organizations. Their task is to make certain that the organization is compliant with the anti-discrimination laws of the state. In addition, they must facilitate the development of an environment where people of different cultures, ages, sex, race, and religion work together harmoniously to achieve the goals of the organization (Beham, Straub, Schwalbach, 2012). Major Issues in Human Resource Diversity Management Some firms with diverse workforce argue that they are diverse in human resources because they have employees, both men and women, of various religions, races, and skin colors. However, in reality, despite the fact that they have diverse workforce, opportunities differ. Such inequality leads to a situation where a certain group is favored when, for example, promotions are given. Moreover, one finds out that in some organizations only a specific group of people can be in top managerial positions due to, maybe, their race, color, or religion. To handle these cases, there must be a law/policy that addresses such biases. The Equal Employment Opportunity (EEO) policy protects employees against discrimination in the workplace. It requires that all employees have the same opportunities for recruitment, firing, transfers, wages/salaries, and promotions irrespective of their skin color, sex, race, national origin, or religion. The policy, which was passed into law in the United States in 1964, also states that discrimination in the classification of positions and advertising is illegal. The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission handles all issues that arise in this field (Kossek, Lobel, Brown , 2005). Diversity management in human resources seeks to harness differences in the workforce to ensure that individual talents are utilized optimally to meet the goals of the organization. Every company should work with different talents among its stuff to guarantee that organizational goals are met in the most efficient way. This means that, instead of concentrating on discrimination, the human resource department should know the strengths of each employee and where they can work most efficiently so that the aims of the organization are achieved. It would be important to note that diversity management tries to overcome discrimination in the labor market by addressing individual differences that are most likely to bring inequality to the workplace. It also highlights the importance of respecting and taking advantage of those individual differences to maximize the potential of the workers and the organization in general. This vividly shows that diversity management in human resource acts, be yond the EOO policy, only requires a legal compliance (Kossek, Lobel, Brown , 2005). Objectives of Diversity Management Organizations implementing human resource diversity management seek to achieve competitive advantage in the market. Their main objective is to comply with the requirements of EEO policy. This is the basic idea for most companies. However, others go a step further and aim at utilizing diversity management to achieve employee attraction and retention. More probably than not, employees will be willing to work in organizations where their individual differences are respected and not used as a basis for discrimination. Therefore, organizations that promote diversity management have a higher retention rate since their staff is more comfortable working there as compared to other organizations where their differences bring about discrimination (Golembiewski, 1995). In addition to this, an organization can use diversity management to improve marketing capabilities. This plan applies where diverse workers present a good image of the organization to the outside world. Consequently, this acts as a marketing strategy for the company. In fact, research shows that diversity management reduces absenteeism among the staff. Evidently, this happens because people feel motivated and appreciated, hence there is job satisfaction. This is dissimilar to organizations with ‘dominant and ‘less dominant groups. In such companies, job satisfaction levels are quite low of those individuals who come from less dominant groups as compared to those in the dominant ones. Therefore, not allowing and appreciating diversity in human resources affects job satisfaction and hinders the possibility of healthy working relationships among co-workers and managers (Beham, Straub, Schwalbach, 2012). Effective diversity management also aims at promoting greater creativity and innovation. A diverse team allows for more clever ways of solving problems, fostering innovation and creativity in the organization. If the company does not appreciate the diversity of its human resources, then there is a lot of rigidity in the way they operate since they use only one perspective. Involvement of additional perspectives, which involves diversity management, will broaden the scope of thinking among workers and management, enhancing creativity and innovation. This is a great advantage to the organization that will steer its growth and ensure that the goals are attained (Golembiewski, 1995). Common Practices in Human Resource Diversity Management Human resource management has some functions that are aimed at maintaining and directing human resources of the organization. Diversity management can be incorporated along with these functions to produce an effective blend of policies. The discussion below is an analysis of human resource management functions combined with diversity management. Recruitment and Selection of Employees Diversity management in the process of recruiting and selecting employees entails giving everyone an equal chance to enter the organization. This means that, for example, women and other minority groups must be treated fairly. In the modern world, this is an increasing trend after various laws regarding equality in the workplace have been enacted. An organization that appreciates diversity in recruitment of its employees creates a good image, hence winning new customers. From time to time, some countries like South Africa use the Affirmative Action (AA) policy to favor the appointment of black people above better-qualified whites in a bid to address past discriminative policies. These efforts are supposed to provide equal opportunities for both the blacks and whites since initially management positions in the country were reserved for the whites. These efforts have yielded fruit as currently there is a higher percentage of blacks in managerial positions in South Africa (Cartwright, 2 002). Training and Development of Employees Diversity management in training and development of employees demands give a fair chance for every employee to get ahead from an organization. Previously, in the case of South Africa, the blacks were denied opportunities for advancing in their careers since there was a monopoly on skilled labor among the whites. This meant that blacks did not have a chance to learn managerial skills by apprenticeship. The Affirmative Action Programs have solved this issue. Other countries with a strong femininity culture have higher percentages of women in managerial positions as compared to countries where male chauvinism prevails (Kossek, Lobel, Brown , 2005). Despite a worldwide call for diversity in training and development of employees, the rate of women and other minority groups is still quite low. It is likely that the management of organizations where diversity management is not appreciated will promote employees with similar views to a position of a human resource manager. Evidently, fewer women are promoted to managerial positions or given relevant training as compared to men. This inequality creates the ‘glass ceiling effect phenomenon. This is an unacknowledged barrier created for women and colored people in the professional world where they cannot advance beyond; it means they cannot hold top managerial positions in organizations. It is illegal. Many countries and organizations still exhibit this effect, as a result, top managerial positions are reserved for specific groups of people, predominantly men (Marquis, 2007). Compensation: Wages and Salaries There should be equal pay for employees who work at the same level irrespective of their background or individual differences. Pay inequality leads to demotivation and job dissatisfaction among employees. The Equal Employment Opportunities (EEO) and Affirmative Actions (AA) programs state that compensation among employees must be fair. However, this has not been effective since some people are paid less just because they are, say, women, or come from minority groups. This trend has necessitated the development of trade unions to solve the problem. Unions advocate for numerous issues that employees face in the workplace, among them, zero-tolerance for discrimination among unionized staff regarding wages (Golembiewski, 1995). Although, there have been reduced earnings disparities between women and men in the workplace, it has not ceased being a global concern. Statistics shows that females earn 20-30% less than their male counterparts. This is a total contrast to the requirements of the Equal Employment Opportunities (EEO) and Affirmative Action programs. Every organization that appreciates diversity in management should smoothen out this disparity to ensure that ladies do not feel less motivated or looked down upon at work (Beham, Straub, Schwalbach, 2012). Performance Appraisals Diversity management in performance appraisal calls for equal promotion opportunities among workers. This means that promotions are issued in accordance with an employees performance irrespective of his/her gender or background. This is an ideal case. More often, it is easier to get a promotion when employees share the background with the managers, which leads to a situation where employees from less dominant groups do not get promoted, or they find it almost impossible to climb the career ladder. Women are victims of these circumstances. This heightens the effect for women who form minority communities. In some organizations, supervisors and managerial staff come from the same location, are of the same age, and they are all men. This is an ultimate sign that diversity management is not appreciated in the organization (Beham, Straub, Schwalbach, 2012). Overall, most companies only comply with the Equal Employment Opportunities (EEO) policy regarding the minimum basic legal requirements. However, beyond that, they do not have affirmative action plans to gain the fulfillment of these minimum requirements. An organization that seeks to improve diversity management through human resources can use a variety of techniques. These techniques would involve generating a framework that addresses the strategies necessary for each function of human resource management. If properly utilized, these strategies would deliver great results in diversity management in the workplace. The discussion below analyzes the strategies that can be employed to provide diversity management on every function of human resources in a company (Beham, Straub, Schwalbach, 2012). Recruitment and Selection Human resource managers tend to recruit employees with similar values and cultures as them. To promote diversity in human resources, this should be abolished. In fact, human resource professionals who constitute interview committees ought to be conversant with the ways in which their beliefs, values, and customs influence behaviors of participants during interviews. This will eradicate bias in the selection process, and more diverse groups can contribute to the organization irrespective of individual disparities (Beham, Straub, Schwalbach, 2012). Training and Development An organization can promote diversity in the workforce by providing excellent diversity awareness training to allow for effective integration of diverse staff. This training is essential for building a mutual understanding of diversity as a value. Consequently, social cohesion among workers may be created, which helps to achieve individual and organizational goals. In 1995, some researchers carried out a study to determine the effectiveness of diversity training in an organization. The results were beyond belief. When the training commenced, only 9% of attendants were positive about diversity training in their company. By the end of the program, the figure rose to 75%. Before the training, 68% were skeptical of its effectiveness. However, after the training, a whopping 93% agreed that diversity training programs do work to create cohesion in the workplace (Marquis, 2007). For diversity training to work, it would be essential to provide a top-bottom strategy, whereby staff at top managerial positions are taught first, and then they pass the knowledge to their juniors. This training should be accomplished from different perspectives, depending on the organizations goals and nature of operations. When this diversity training is linked to the strategic goals of the organization, it achieves greater results as compared to situations when it is just a vague general training (Beham, Straub, Schwalbach, 2012). Compensation: Wages and Salaries In order to adopt effective diversity management in an organization, the principle of equal remuneration and a pay system that is based on performance must be applied. The determinants of wages, benefits schemes, and compensation structures ought to be designed on common principles, taking the ability, skills, and knowledge of an individual into consideration at the same time (Marquis, 2007). Performance Appraisals To make the model of diversity management in performance appraisals more effective, fairness is vital. It calls for an inclusion of mon-traditional managers in the performance appraisal committees. These managers should be rational, upholding fairness. Additionally, they must use an objective criterion rather than a subjective one since they must minimize bias in making their decisions on the right candidates for promotions. Moreover, the performance appraisals should use the language that focuses on an individuals performance and not their religion, race, or culture. This attitude will promote effective diversity management in the organization. It is also important to note that when assessing managers’ performance, those who make an effort to hire and promote minority groups and women should be recognized because they show improve of diversity in the organization (Marquis, 2007). Diversity Management and Balancing Work and Family Life Every organization that seeks to have effective diversity management in human resources must adopt measures that help to create awareness of the work environment in order to improve working conditions and stimulate productivity. One of these measures would be to ensure that the organization supports better work-life balance. It could manifest itself in various forms. For example, shorter working hours and childcare leaves. An organization can implement the Childcare Leave Law to guarantee that new parents in the organization are not discriminated against and that they are comfortable at work. The law requires that employees must be given a paid leave of up to 10 days if they return to work within three months after the delivery of their child. A shorter working-hour-program implies that employees with children, who attend third-grade elementary school and lower institution, must be given working hour options and work time patterns that best meet the needs of their individual lifestyl es. This ensures that the welfare of these employees, who would be otherwise stressed in the workplace due to rigid timetables, is considered (Robert John, 2013). Effective human resource diversity management is essential for every organization. It fosters innovation since versatile workforce means a broader base of cultural experiences. This brings in a new perspective, improving the operations of the business in a unique way. Additionally, effective diversity management attracts talent and customers. This happens because customers prefer to purchase products or seek services from diverse companies. In the modern world, if an organization wants to be successful and maintain healthy competition against competitors, it must embrace diversity, not only in the products it is dealing with but also in the human resources employed in the organization. Moreover, stimulation of diversity management in human resources promotes cultural intelligence among employees. This may be explained by the fact that it gives both the customers and the employees an opportunity to learn and appreciate the values of other cultures. Diversity expands the minds of the s taff, fostering national unity in general since the people have been taught to value other cultures irrespective of the differences they have. The benefits of having diverse workforce cannot be understated. They go a long way in bringing fruits at organizational, national, and global levels. If people are taught to give every person an equal chance in everything, this attitude instills in them a strong culture. It reduces circumstances where workers feel discriminated against and receive no satisfaction in their jobs. Otherwise, organizations will have to work with employees that have no job satisfaction and behave like robots. Such conduct will mean that attainment of organizational goals will become too hard or sometimes, the goals become ultimately unattainable. For this reason, it would be in the best interest of every organization to ensure that they diversify their human resources and manage them effectively.

Dont Do Due Diligence

Dont Do Due Diligence Don’t Do Due Diligence Don’t Do Due Diligence By Maeve Maddox Not so very long ago, the only people I heard talk about â€Å"due diligence† were realtors. Due diligence is a legal term that refers to the exercise of proper care and attention to avoid committing an offense through ignorance. For example, a realtor must trace previous ownership and make sure that a property is free and clear before selling it to a new owner. In another context, due diligence is the comprehensive appraisal of a business undertaken to evaluate the commercial worth of a business. Due diligence is exercised to investigate such matters as assets and liabilities. Since the 1980s, the expression â€Å"due diligence† has migrated from legal and business use to the general vocabulary, where it has become an inflated synonym for â€Å"comparison shopping.† comparison shopping: comparing the same or similar products or services as offered by different retailers, manufacturers, etc. in order to find the best value at the lowest price. A few users do seem to understand that â€Å"due diligence† is a specialized term in need of explanation: Prudence would dictate that such an important decision [choosing a college] be preceded by a serious period of what on Wall Street is called due diligence. By going through the above information-gathering activities [i.e., researching colleges], you are performing your due diligence in making a final choice.   More commonly, writers use of the expression as if it were simply another way of saying â€Å"research a subject,† â€Å"compare prices,† â€Å"shop around,† or â€Å"think things through†: Always use your due diligence when researching DHT blockers/inhibitor [in shampoos] I never make a decision on ANYTHING without first doing my Yelp due diligence.    Due diligence in the running shoe  arena can make a huge difference between success and failure. A bride that has done her due diligence in her quest to truly find the best wedding dress always asks the question, â€Å"where else can I go to compare this particular dress style?† [Before buying a dog] practice due diligence by researching dog breeds, asking family, friends or neighbours who have dogs, and consulting experts. Using the verb do with â€Å"due diligence† creates a mildly comic effect because of the juxtaposition of the â€Å"do† sounds: Dont Wing It To Strategically Position Yourself, Do Your Due Diligence Do You Do Due Diligence? Who are we to get in the way of mamas who want to do their due diligence and sample lots more of our clothing? â€Å"Do due diligence† echoes the humorous euphemism â€Å"doo-doo.† I even found a headline that deliberately plays on the doo-doo effect: Doo Your Due Diligence when Using a Kennel The story under the headline has nothing to do with doo-doo, but I don’t think that the spelling is a typo. The site is run by a business called ScooperDude; it offers a weekly clean-up service to dog owners who don’t want to pick up after their own dogs. When it comes to â€Å"due diligence,† it’s better to exercise it or practice it than to do it. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Style category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:8 Writing Tips for BeginnersThe Uses of â€Å"The†

Rock and Roll Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Rock and Roll - Essay Example Rock and roll lyrics in the early 60’s were mostly inclined towards love; nevertheless, numerous other themes were addressed either independently from or alongside romance. A noteworthy element of rock and roll in the 60s was that it was markedly inclined towards the musicality and authenticity of ideology unlike other genres such as pop. During this period, several other music varieties emerged bearing a distinctive rock music sub-genre feel such as RnB Folk rock and Jazz fusion among others. The period also saw the development of more specific music types such as progressive rock, this particular genre majored on artistic elements while glam rock could be said to emphasize showmanship as well as the visual technique. Notably, the diverse and enduring major sub-genre that is heavy metal has retained most of its initial attributes also was also introduced around this time, unlike the others it focused on the volume power as well as speed. Fashion In 1999, the metropolitan muse um of Art acknowledged the role played by rock music in fashion in an exhibition running from up to 2000 in which the significant stages in rock and roll fashion were on display (Vogue, n.d). Fashion is one of the most important art forms and so is music as such it was only natural that the two are merged and the impact of the unity of the two was seen in performance of rock and roll from the onset. In its advent, the influence of rock and roll in fashion was seen in the clothes popularized by the early rock stars; Elvis Presley had his blue suede shoes, the Beatles in the British invasion brought with them their hairstyle, which influenced the American hair fashion sense for decades (Gritten, 1994). In addition, Motley Crue’s Nikki Sixx and many others then also inspired tattoos that came in vogue around. In the 60’s, musical groups would wear stage uniforms made in expensive materials for stage performances and they would be identified with their particular looks whi ch their fans often copied. In the mid 60’s, the rolling stones showed up and they introduced the tough leather wearing street image and are credited with being the first to cast aside the group fashion mentality. Each of them adopted his own style and they did not have to conform to a specific dress code or uniform, this spawned a myriad of fashion trends and actually brought about a split in the cultural scene where there were two groups, the mods and rocker. The former preferred expensive high end clothing and rockers went for jeans and t-shirts, the rockers clearly won in and even today, the fashion trend which they set in the 60’s is still dominant today among both artists and in the fashion industry. In addition, the late sixties, rockers embraced the hippie fashion, wore jeans, tie, and dye t-shirts, which became totem of the 1960s fashion. In the 70’s, when disco hits became popular the urban styles that were the epitome of fashion took a firm hold on to day’s world and have continued to evolve over the years. Grudge was popularized by bands such as nirvana, which were characterized by a gothic look that is a major part of today’s performance of rock music both on stage and on the digital media. Surprisingly, todays rock stars such as Bon Jovi have not moved too far away from the 70s and 80s fashion and in his videos such â€Å"We weren’t born to follow† there is a distinct similarity between the rock stars in their faded jeans and t-shirts to their forerunners decades ago. In addition, the individuality that sparked off by the rolling stones

QUANTITATIVE NURSING RESEARCH Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

QUANTITATIVE NURSING - Research Paper Example The authors examine various literary sources addressing the subject of empathy within the context of nursing. The literary analysis segment begins with a brief overview of empathy and its importance in the care of patients. This significance of empathy in nursing is accentuated when the authors mention that, empathy is virtually the same with the nursing profession and is also linked to the latter’s inception. The article cites authors who have made an attempt to describe the importance of communication or interaction between nurses and patients, while describing importance of human connection to nursing practices and overall patient health. In essence, the article provides credible information derived from past research, on why empathy is deemed on the most important skills in nursing. After effectively informing the reader about the importance of empathy in nursing, the authors delve deeper into the meaning of empathy, as provided by diverse scholars. For example, the article cites an author who considers empathy to be a cognitive, instead of emotional attribute, which involves nurses’ ability to understand, as opposed to feeling, the perspectives, experiences, and concerns of a patient. This definition also encompasses a nurse’s ability to portray the described understanding. Another definition cited in the article stipulates that, nurses must show the intention to assist patients, in addition to observing the previously mentioned characteristics of understanding. The authors emphasize key terms that give the most conclusive definition of empathy including cognition, understanding, communication and intention to help. By exploring these different definitions, the authors form a credible basis for the analysis of their primary purpose, since the rea der gets adequate comprehension of the concept to be explored. In addition, the definitions provide insight into the vital nature of empathy to

Visiting Hour by Norman MacCaig Essay Example for Free

Visiting Hour by Norman MacCaig Essay I have chosen to write about the poem Visiting Hour by Norman MacCaig. The poem is about a hospital visit to someone close to his heart. The poet believes that the person, who incidentally is his wife, is going to die. From the poem I can sense that Norman MacCaig is speaking through his emotions and by writing the poem he is aiming to release some of his emotional pain. The poem had a profound impact on me. I felt very empathetic towards him because I also feel that when someone close to me is about to die. When both my Gran and Grandpa have been severely ill in hospital, I have feared the worst and saw myself being strong whilst in the company of others, but naturally breaking down into a sob of tears when alone. When reading the poem I could clearly visualise going to visit someone in hospital and I started to cry as I read the poem more. I feel that being strong for someone is very important in this poem and he shows this throughout. The poem was written is six paragraphs of which only two were long. The first four paragraphs are about MacCaig building up to the visit t his wife and what he is thinking. In paragraph three he says, I will not feel, by this he means he doesnt want to show his emotions in front of his wife. I think that the poem was divided into two halves, the shorter first four paragraphs being one half and they longer two paragraphs being the second half. In the second half, MacCaig writes about the visit itself. I think he does this to get an equal balance of importance, too gradually lead us up to his heartache. MacCaig uses a lot of unusual ideas in his poem. When he is describing walking into the hospital he writes this, The hospital smell combs my nostrils, by this he is telling us that the hospital smells so clean, that his nostrils would feel out of place if they hadnt been combed. It seems as if his mind is set on death as he sees someone on a hospital trolley being trundled into a lift and going up words, he writes, What seems a corpse is trundled into am lift and vanishes heavenward, to me this signifies that he is seeing a negative in everything. I was confused by the way he described a nurses movement at first as he says, Nurses walk lightly, swiftly, here and up and down and there, and by this he means that a nurse sets to go somewhere and can end up somewhere completely different because of demanding patients or unexpected urgencies. I admire the poets style of writing because it is very moving. By this I mean I can feel empathy towards him throughout the poem.

Graduation Speech: Dedicated to Our Soldier-Parents :: Graduation Speech, Commencement Address

Eighteen years ago 134 young souls breathed life for the first time. We all have come from different places with no way of knowing that one day we would all end up being on the same stage together. Unlike most of the Class of 2012 in the States none of us here went to elementary school together, or middle school, or even all of high school. We come from a very different life experience than most. Most of us have never been the same place for more than a few years. That's only one of the many differences we have with our peers stateside. Another major one of course is the fact that we have spent most our high school lives in Europe. We live in a foreign country with different laws, a different language, and different customs. Many of us have also had the opportunity to travel to numerous countries around Europe and experience those societies as well. In an increasingly globalized world I believe because of our experiences with foreigners that my classmates and I are much better prepar ed to move out into the real world than any other graduating class anywhere in the States. Some of you may think that that is a bold statement and that's because it is, but it's the truth. My classmates and I have walked a path that has never been walked before. We have been forced to deal with a deployment from a deployment. We are all deployed to Europe and then we are forced to live our lives as normal as possible in this foreign land while we have parents deployed again to Iraq and Afghanistan for at least a year at a time. We have to mature faster and take on greater responsibilities than average teenagers. While a parent is deployed we go day to day trying to make it through school, extra-curricular activities, and community involvement, all while knowing that our parent-soldier could be getting shot at in a combat zone and that today—might be the day we find out we will never hear from them again. Tonight we are in the presence of true heroes, men and women who are willing to put their lives on the line; who are willing to suffer through year away from their family, all to help an oppressed society enjoy the very freedoms that we so often take for granted. These heroes also happen to be our parents, the people who have suffered through us the longest and somehow they still find it in their heart to stick around, I don't know how you do it.

Different forms of child abuse Essay

Child abuse is a common term for four types of child maltreatment: sexual abuse, physical abuse, emotional or psychological abuse, and neglect. Children are usually victims of more than one type of abuse. They could be both sexually and emotionally abused or they could also be physically abused and neglected. In some severe cases, children may suffer from more than two forms of abuse. Child abuse was once viewed as a minor social problem that only affected a handful of U.S. children. In recent years the media and law enforcement has paid close attention to the issue. More than 1,000 children died from abuse in 1996, in the U.S. (1). Approximately 231 children are abused each day. That is 10 children every hour, and one child every six minutes. Each day in the United States, more than three children die as a result of child abuse, in the home. More children, age four and younger, die from child abuse and neglect than any other single, leading cause of death for infants and young children (1). The abusers can be family members, parents, caretakers such as babysitters and teachers, and strangers. Abuse occurs among all ethnic, social, and income groups. Most parents don’t hurt or neglect their children intentionally. Many were themselves abused or neglected. Usually the cases that are reported involve poor families with little education. Also common in reports are young mothers, single-parent families, and parental drug or alcohol abuse. The frequency of child abuse is difficult to estimate, due to so many cases going unreported. There are signs, symptoms, and causes to all four types of child abuse. When you have a concern for a child’s well-being, the signs or symptoms may help guide you in the process of reporting. Although, these signs, mentioned later, don’t necessarily indicate that a child is being abused. A professional, who would be able to determine the abuse, should investigate the possibility. Determining the exact cause of child abuse is almost impossible. In general,  the factors that influence whether abuse will happen is grouped into two categories- internal and external. Lack of social support, economic hardship, and chemical dependency are a few external factors. Some internal factors are: biological, emotional, and psychological. Some factors are as common as low intelligence and range to, as rare as, a severe personality disorder such as Schizophrenia. Isolation is a factor contributing to abuse. When families have difficulties, perhaps from unemployment or other social problems, they may respond in a number of ways. The families that respond by isolating themselves, by withdrawing themselves from neighbors and friends, are the most likely to be abusive. Charles F. Johnson defines sexual abuse as † any activity with a child, before the age of legal consent, that is for the sexual gratification of an adult or a significantly older child.† Sexual abuse involves fondling, penetration, persuading a child to expose his or her sexual organs, and allowing a child to view pornography. In most of the reported cases the child knew the abuser, and one in five of the abusers were under age themselves. 12% of the confirmed cases reported in 1996 involved sexual abuse. An estimated 10-15% of males and 20-25% of females reported they were sexually abused by age 18 (2). Most sexually abused children never come to the attention of the authorities. There may be no physical signs of harm, but there is always the intense shame, and secrecy is often maintained, even by the adults who know of the abuse, for fear of destroying a family. There is evidence emerging that as many as one in three incidents of child sexual abuse are not remembered by adults who experience them, and that the younger the child was at the time of the abuse, and the closer the relationship to the abuser, the more likely one is not to remember, claims Linda Williams. Convicted rape and sexual assault offenders serving time in State prisons  report that two-thirds of their victims were under the age 18, and 58% of those (nearly 4 in 10 imprisoned violent sex offenders) said their victims were aged 12 or younger. In 90% of the rapes of children less than 12 years old, the child knew the offender. Sixty percent took place in the victim’s home or at the home of a friend, neighbor, or relative. Two-thirds of sex offenders in state prisons victimized a child. For offenders imprisoned for violent crimes against victims younger than 18 (1994), 15% were convicted of forcible rape, 57% were convicted of other types of sexual assault (lewd acts of forcible sodomy, statutory rape, etc.), about thirty percent reported attacks on more than one child, and more than half the victims were younger than 12. Out of 277 inmate interviews of all prisoners convicted of rape or sexual assault, two-thirds victimized children. Three out of four child victims were female, prisoners convicted of attacking children were mostly male, 97%, and about 22% of the child sex offenders reported having been sexually abused themselves during childhood. Half of the women raped were younger than 18 and 20% were victimized by their father (3). Children often fail to report because of the fear that disclosure will bring consequences even worse than being victimized again. The victim may fear consequences from the family or feel guilty for consequences to the perpetrator. Victims may also have a feeling that â€Å"something is wrong with me,† and that the abused is their fault. The impact of child sexual abuse is tremendous. It is estimated that there are 60 million survivors of childhood sexual abuse in America, today. Approximately 31% of women in prison state they have been abused as children and about 95% of teenage prostitutes have been sexually abused. Young girls who are forced to have sex are three times more likely to develop psychiatric disorders or abuse alcohol and drugs in adulthood, than girls who are not sexually abused (4). There are two different types of indicators of sexual abuse, physical indicators and behavioral indicators. Some of the physical indicators are: 1)Torn, stained or bloody underclothes. 2)Frequent, unexplained sore throats, yeast or urinary infections. 3) Bruises or bleeding from external genitalia, vagina, or anal region. 4) Sexual transmitted disease. 5) Pregnancy. Some of the behavioral indicators are: 1)The victim’s disclosure of sexual abuse. 2)Disturbed sleeping pattern. 3)Difficulty in walking or sitting. 4)Avoidance of undressing or wearing extra layers of clothes. 5)Sudden decline in school performance. The two prerequisites for this form of maltreatment include sexual arousal to children and the willingness to act on this arousal. Factors that may contribute to the willingness include alcohol or drug abuse, poor impulse control, and a belief that the sexual behaviors are acceptable and not harmful to the child. The chances of abuse are higher if the child is developmentally handicapped or vulnerable in some other way. Often there is no physical evidence of sexual abuse for a doctor to find. In fact, physical examinations of children in cases suspected sexual abuse supply grounds for further suspicion only 15-20% of the time (4). Physical abuse is the nonaccidental infliction of physical injury to a child, such as cut, bruises, welts, and broken bones. The abuser is usually a family member or other caretaker, and is more likely to be male. In 1996,  24% of the confirmed cases of U.S. child abuse involved physical abuse (4). A rare form of physical abuse is Munchausen syndrome by proxy, in which a caretaker, most often the mother, seeks attention by making the child sick or appear to be sick. Skulls and other bone fractures are often seen in young abused children, and in fact head injuries are the leading cause of death in abused children. A few physical indicators of physical abuse are: 1)Unexplained welts or bruises on the face, upper arms, throat, thighs or lower back in unusual patterns or shapes which suggest use of an instrument (electric cord, belt buckle) on an infant in various stages of healing that are seen after absences, weekends, or vacations. 2)Rope burns. 3)Bald patches. 4)Refusal to undress for gym. Some of the behavioral indicators of physical abuse are: 1)Behavioral extremes- withdrawal, aggression, depression. 2)Unbelievable or inconsistent explanation for the injury. 3)Fear of physical contact-shrinking back if touched. 4)Fear of medical help or examination. The usual physical abuse scenario involves a parent who loses control and lashes out at a child. The trigger could be a dirty diaper or crying. Unlike nonabusive parent, who may become upset or angry with their children from  time to time but are genuinely loving, abusive parents tend to harbor deep-rooted negative feelings toward their children. Emotional abuse, also known as psychological abuse, according to Richard D. Krugman, â€Å"has been defined as the rejection, ignoring, criticizing, isolation, or terrorizing or children, all of which have the effect of eroding their self-esteem†. Emotional abuse usually expresses itself in verbal attacks involving rejection, belittlement, humiliation, and so forth. Emotional abuse also includes bizarre forms of punishment, such as confinement of a child in a dark closet. Often psychological abuse accompanies other types of abuse and is difficult to prove. It is rarely reported and accounted for only 6% of the confirmed 1996 cases (3). A few physical indicators of emotional abuse are: 1)Eating disorders- obesity or anorexia. 2)Nervous disorders- rashes, facial tics, hives, etc. 3)Speech disorders- stuttering, stammering, etc. 4)Flat or bald spots on head (infants). A few behavioral indicators of psychological abuse are: 1)Age inappropriate behaviors- bedwetting, soiling, etc. 2)Habit disorders- biting, rocking, etc. 3)Cruel behavior- seeming to get pleasure from hurting another child, adult, or animal. 4)Overreaction to mistakes. Emotional abuse can happen in many different settings: at school, at home, on sports teams, and so on. The forth and final forms of child abuse is neglect. Neglect is the failure to satisfy a child’s basic needs and can assume many forms. Emotional neglect is the failure to satisfy a child’s normal emotional needs or behavior that damages a child’s normal psychological and emotional development, physical neglect is the failure to provide adequate food, shelter, clothing, or supervision, and educational neglect includes the allowance of chronic truancy, failure to enroll a child of mandatory school age in school, and failure to attend to a special educational need. Failing to see that a child receives proper schooling or medical care is also considered neglect. In 1996, neglect was confirmed in over half of the abuse cases (3). Some physical indicators of neglect include: 1)Poor hygiene- lice, diaper rash, body odor, etc. 2)Lack of immunizations. 3)Untreated injury or illness. 4)Poor state of clothing. A few behavioral indicators of neglect include: 1)Chronic hunger or tiredness. 2)Assuming adult responsibilities. 3)Unusual school attendance. 4)No social relationships. Many cases of neglect occur because the parent experiences strong negative feelings toward the child. At other times, the parent may truly care for the child, but lack the ability to adequately provide for the child’s needs due to being handicapped by drug abuse, depression, mental retardation, or other problems. As a result, their physical, emotional, social, and mental development is hindered. Young children remain at high risk for loss of life. Between 1995 and 1997, 78% of these children were less than five years of age at the time of their death, while 38% were under one year of age. As for cause of death, 44% of deaths resulted from neglect, 51% from physical abuse, and 5% from a combination of neglectful and physically abusive parenting. Approximately 41% of these deaths occurred to children known to child protective service agencies as current or prior clients (5). Abuse investigators are often a group effort involving medical personnel, police officers, social workers, and others. Careful questioning of the parents is crucial, as is interviewing the child. The investigators must ensure, however, that their questioning does not further traumatize the child. A physical examination for signs of abuse or neglect is, always necessary, and may also include blood tests, x-rays, and other procedures. If the child has sisters or brothers, the authorities must determine whether they have been abused as well. Signs of physical abuse are discovered in about 20% of the sisters and brothers of abused children (4). Child abuse can have lifelong consequences. Research shows that abused children and adolescents are more likely, for instance, suffer emotional problems, do poorly in school, abuse drugs and alcohol, and attempt suicide. As adults they have often have trouble establishing intimate relationships. Notification of the appropriate authorities, treatment of the child’s  injuries, and protecting the child from further harm are the immediate priorities in child abuse! Sources All Figures Based Upon The Following: 1.A Nation’s Shame: Fatal Child Abuse and Neglect in the United States. 2.Child Maltreatment 1998: Reports from the States to the National Child Abuse and Neglect Data System. 3.http://www.prevent-abuse-now.com/stats.htm 4.http://www.prevent-abuse-now.com/stats2.htm 5.Wang, C.T. & Daro, D. (1998). Current Trends in Child Abuse Reporting and Fatalities: The results of the 1997 Annual Fifty State Survey.